تبلیغات خصمانه در نظام آزادی رسانه‌ها در چارچوب حقوق بین‌الملل

نوع مقاله : مقاله پژوهشی

نویسندگان

1 دانشجوی دکتری حقوق بین‌الملل عمومی، دانشکده علوم انسانی، دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی، قم، ایران

2 استادیار گروه حقوق بین‌الملل، دانشکده علوم انسانی، دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی، قم، ایران

10.22034/imrl.2022.370109.1153

چکیده

رسانه‌ها ضرورت عصر دهکده جهانی و تنظیم‌کننده حقوق و روابط بین‌الملل هستند. وسایل ارتباط‌جمعی، سیاست دولت‌ها را پیش می‌برد و خود را ابزار حیات آنان معرفی می‌کند. رسانه مدخل آزادی بیان و نشر اطلاعات و البته ناظر بر حقوق‌بشر لقب می‌گیرد. با این‌ حال همیشه هم بیانگر هنجارها و جهانی‌سازی قائم بر حقوق بین‌الملل نیست تا جایی‌که دولت‌ها کارکرد رسانه را به‌نفع خود و در ضدیّت با دیگر جوامع نیز به‌کار می‌برند. این فناوری گاه با تعرض به حریم سایر تابعان، سویه غیرمسالمت‌آمیز می‌گیرد و صلح و امنیت بین‌الملل را به‌مخاطره می‌اندازد. بر این اساس، سؤال اصلی مقاله این است که حقوق بین‌الملل به چه میزان توانسته عملکرد رسانه‌ها در بیان و نشر تبلیغات خصمانه را قاعده‌مند سازد؟ بنابراین، با به‌کارگیری روش توصیفی-‌تحلیلی و استقراء از قواعد حقوق بین‌الملل، ماهیت پروپاگاندای سیاسی که بی‌شباهت به تبلیغات خصمانه نیست، در صحنه حقوق و عملکرد رسانه‌ها واکاوی شده است. میدان ‌عمل محقق دامنه حق «آزادی بیان و نشر اطلاعات» برگرفته از اعلامیه جهانی حقوق‌بشر و اسناد عام‌الشمول و فرض آن در نظام کارکرد رسانه‌ها بوده است. نتیجه پژوهش بر ممنوعیّت ضمنی تبلیغات خصمانه در اسناد متعدد بین‌المللی حکایت دارد اما سوءاستفاده دولت‌ها از رسانه در تحریک یا تهدید به جنگ‌طلبی و تصویرسازی مسالمت‌آمیز از مخاصمات به‌واقع محرز است. حقوق بین‌الملل باید نظام عملکرد رسانه‌ها را به‌هنجار سازد، چراکه رسانه با ادعای بی‌حصر آزادی بیان می‌تواند حتی موجب مأخذ نفرت‌پراکنی، خشونت‌طلبی و جنگ‌افروزی شود یا هر مخاصمه‌ای را با تغییر ماهیت، اقدام بشردوستانه معرفی کند.

کلیدواژه‌ها


عنوان مقاله [English]

Hostile Advertisements in the “Media Freedom System” within the Framework of International Law

نویسندگان [English]

  • Mohsen Gholami 1
  • Mohammadreza Hakakzadeh 2
1 Mohsen gholami, Ph.D. Student in Public international law, Islamic Azad University. Qom.Iran
2 Assistant Prof., Department of International Law, Faculty of Law and Political Science, Qom Branch Islamic Azad University. Qom. Iran
چکیده [English]

The media are necessary in the era of the global village and the regulator of international relations and law. The means of mass communication advance the policy of governments and introduce themselves as their means of entity. The media is called the outlet of freedom of expression and dissemination of information, and of course, the observer of human rights. However, it does not always express the norms and globalization based on international law to the extent that governments use the function of the media for their own benefit and in opposition to other societies. This technology sometimes becomes non-peaceful by invading the privacy of other subjects and endangers international peace and security. Based on this, the main question of the article is to what extent international law has been able to regularize the performance of the media in expressing and publishing hostile advertisements? Therefore, by using the descriptive-analytical method and induction from the rules of international law, the nature of political propaganda, which is not dissimilar to hostile propaganda, has been examined in the field of law and media practice. The field of action of the researcher has been the scope of the right of "freedom of expression and publication of information" taken from the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and universal documents and its assumption in the working system of the media. The result of the research indicates the implicit prohibition of hostile propaganda in many international documents, but the misuse of the media by the governments in inciting or threatening belligerence and peaceful portrayal of conflicts is really evident. International law should regulate the media's functioning system because the media with extreme claims of freedom of speech can even cause hatred, violence and war-mongering or introduce any conflict as a humanitarian action by changing its nature.

کلیدواژه‌ها [English]

  • Mass Media
  • International Humanitarian and Human Law
  • Hostile Propaganda
  • Freedom of Expression
  • Media Law
اشرافی، داریوش (1393)، «تفسیر جدید از صلح و امنیت بین‌المللی و تأثیر آن بر مفهوم حاکمیت ملی»، پژوهش حقوق عمومی، سال پانزدهم، شماره 42، صص 83-109.
جعفری لنگرودی، محمدجعفر (1400)، ترمینولوژی حقوق، چاپ سی و چهارم، تهران: گنج دانش.
خانیکی، هادی؛ باستانی، سوسن و ارکان‌زاده یزدی، سعید (1399)، «نظام رسانه‌ای ایران: جانشینی ناکامل رسانه‌های نوین و ازجا دررفتگی شبکه رسانه‌ها»، مطالعات فرهنگ-ارتباطات، دوره 21، شماره 49، صص 7-31.
ریخته‌گربرنجی، ریحانه و کدخدایی، عباسعلی (1397)، «رویکرد حقوق بین‌الملل در خصوص تبلیغات خصمانه برای جنگ»، مطالعات حقوق عمومی، دوره 48، شماره 3، صص 525-545.
زاهدی، مهدی و شریف‌زاده، شیرین (1400)، «آزادی بیان و اصل دوگانگی ایده و بیان»، پژوهش عمومی، دوره 23، شماره 71، صص 95-127.
سلطانی‌فر، محمد (1391)، «حقوق بین‌الملل، رسانه‌ها، صلح و امنیت بین‌المللی»، تحقیقات حقوق خصوصی و کیفری (دانشنامه حقوق و سیاست)، دوره 8، شماره 18، صص 61-79.
سوربون، ورنر و تانکارد، جیمز (1401)، نظریه‌های ارتباطات، ترجمه علیرضا دهقان، چاپ یازدهم، تهران: نشر دانشگاه تهران.
غلامی، محسن (1400)، رفتار رسانه‌ای تروریسم، تهران: آثار فکر.
کرمی، رضا و شریفی‌طرازکوهی، حسین (1397)، «آزادی رسانه و وضعیت اضطراری در نظام حقوق بشر اروپا پس از یازدهم سپتامبر»، جستارهای سیاسی معاصر، دوره 9، شماره 2، شماره پیاپی 28، صص 161-186.
مظاهری، مسعود و مرادی، مریم (1398)، «حاکمیت و امنیت ملی در پرتو آزادی اطلاعات»، سیاست دفاعی، شماره 108، صص 75-116.
مهدی‌زاده، سیدمحمد و غلامی، محسن (1398)، حقوق مخاطب در تبلیغات تجاری رسانه، تهران: مجد.
میریان، سیدایمان و اصغری، زینب (1391)، «تبلیغات خصمانه از منظر حقوق بین‌الملل»، مطالعات قدرت نرم، سال دوم، شماره 5، صص 7-34.
 
Adache, J. E. (2010), "Objectivity in security story reportage and the imperative of balancing the two sides: Military role and media responsibility". In M. D. Yusuf; The Military, The media and Nigeria’s national security. Nigeria: Gold Press Limited.
Ariel, Yaron and Avidar, Ruth (2015), "Information, Interactivity, and Social Media", Atlantic Journal of Communication, 23(1), pp 19-30.
Bardent, Eric (2021), "Deplatforming Trump", Intermedia. March 2021 Vol 49 Issue 1. pp 16-19.
Borchard, Edwin M. (2013), The Binding Force of International Law, By A. Pearce Higgins. Published online by Cambridge University Press
Cardoso, G. (2006), The Media in the Network Society: Browsing, News, Filters and Citizenship, Portugal: Centre for Research and Studies in Sociology.
Coban, Filiz (2016), "The Role of the Media in International Relations: From the CNN Effect to the Al-Jazeere Effect", Journal of International Relations and Foreign Policy. Vol. 4, No. 2. pp 45-61.
Commissioner for Human Rights (2022), "Freedom of expression, freedom of the media and safety of journalists", Available at: www.coe.int/fr/web/commissioner/thematic-work/media-freedom
Danladi, A. A. (2013), "The role of the media in national security in Nigeria: 1960- 1999". Arabian Journal of Business and Management Review, pp 1-13.
Der Derian, James (2009), Virtuous War: Mapping the Military Industrial–Media. Entertainment Network, Publishers Weekly
digital television network CNBC (2022), "Lawmakers urge tech CEOs to do more to help Iranian protesters circumvent internet censorship", Available at: www.cnbc.com/2022/10/28/lawmakers-urge-tech-ceos-to-do-more-to-help-iranian-protesters.html
Dower, Nigel (2002), "Violent Humanitarianism-An Oxymoron? "Human Rights and Military Intervention by Moseley, Alexander & Norman, Richard (eds.), Ashgate Publishing Limited, Aldershot, UK. pp 73-94.
Downey, Elizabeth (2017), "A Historical Survey of the International Regulation of Propaganda", Michigan Journal of International Law, Volume 5, Issue 1. pp 340-360.
Downie.Jr, Leonard and Schudson, Michael (2009), The Reconstruction of American Journalism, New York: Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism.
Dyke, Vernon Van (1940), "The Responsibility of States for International Propaganda", American Journal of International Law, Volume 34, Issue 1. pp 58-73.
Ekaterina, Balabanova (2015), The Media and Human Rights: The Cosmopolitan Promise, Publisher: Routledge
ethical culture fieldston school, Tate Library (2022), "The lexical meaning of the term propaganda". Available at: libraries.ecfs.org
further, Joyce. (2010), "Human Rights and the Mediatization of International Law", Leiden Journal of International Law, Volume 23, Issue 3. pp 507-527.
Gonina, Solomon Samuel (2019), "Mass Media, Terrorism and National Security: Defining the Threats", Cross-Cultural Communication, Vol. 15, No. 3, 2019, pp 10-15
Handyside v. The United Kingdom, 5493/72, Council of Europe: European Court of Human Rights, 4 November 1976, available at: www.refworld.org/cases,ECHR,3ae6b6fb8.html
Hendrix, Justin (2022), "War Propaganda and International Law: A Conversation with Vivek Krishnamurthy". Available at: www.techpolicy.press/war-propaganda-and international-law-a-conversation-with-vivek-krishnamurthy
Human Rights Council Report (2016), "A/HRC/32/L.20, The promotion, protection and enjoyment of human rights on the Internet", Human Rights Council Thirty-second session, Available at: https: //documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/undoc /ltd/g16/131/89/pdf/g1613189.pdf?OpenElement
Hurd, Douglas (1997), The search for peace, London: little, Brown and company
Johns, Fleur E. (2013), "The Deluge", London Review of International Law, vol. 1. pp 9-34.
Jowett, Garth S. & O`Donnell, Victoria (2012), Propaganda and Persuasion, 5 th edition, USA, SAGE publications
Joyce, Daniel (2010), "Human Rights and the Mediatization of International Law", Leiden Journal of International Law, Volume 23, Issue 3, September 2010, pp 507-527
Joyce, Daniel (2020), Informed Publics, Media and International Law, Publisher: Bloomsbury Publishing
Joyce,Daniel (2015), "Internet Freedom and Human Rights", The European Journal of International Law, Vol. 26 no. 2. pp 493–514.
Lasswell, H. D. (1927), Propaganda technique in the world war, New York: Knopf
Mani, V.S (2005), Humanitarian Intervention Today, In: Collected Courses of the Hague Academy of International Law
McAleenan, Kevin (2019), "Homeland Security Strategic Framework for Countering Terrorism and Targeted Violence", Available at: Homeland Security (www.dhs.gov)
Mercier, Arnaud (2005), "War and media: Constancy and convulsion", International Review of the Red Cross, Volume 87, Issue 860, pp 649-659.
O’Neill, Onora (2013), "Media Freedoms and Media Standards", Ethics of Media. pp 21–38.
Oster, Jan (2015), Media Freedom as a Fundamental Right, Publisher: Cambridge University Press.
Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe (2015), "Terrorist attacks in Paris: together for a democratic response", Available at: www.assembly.coe.int/nw/xml/XRef/Xref-XML2HTML-en.asp?fileid=21521&lang=en
Porter, Jon (2019), "The EU wants to stop online extremist content in its tracks". Available at: www.theverge.com/2019/3/21/18274201/european-terrorist-content-regulation-extremist-terreg-upload-filter-one-hour-takedown-eu
Ramona, Ludolph (2020), "Organizational propaganda on the Internet: A systematic revi", Public Relations Inquiry, Vol. 9(1). pp 103–127.
Richardson, J. E. (2007), Analysing Newspapers: An Approach from Critica, Publisher: Red Globe Press
Root, Elihu (2017), "The Need of Popular Understanding of International Law", American Journal of International Law, Volume1, Issue1, January 1907. Published online by Cambridge University Press: 04 May 2017. pp 1–3.
Rowbottom, Jacob (2006), "Media Freedom and Political Debate in the Digital Era", The Modern Law Review, Vol. 69, No. 4 (Jul., 2006), pp 489-513.
Sander, Barrie (2021), "Democratic Disruption in the Age of Social Media: Between Marketized and Structural Conceptions of Human Rights Law", The European Journal of International Law, Vol. 32 no 1. pp 159-193.
Sedler, Robert Allen (2006), "An Essay on Freedom of Speech: The United States Versus the Rest of the World", Michigan State Law Review, Vol. 2, (2006), at 379. pp. 377-384.
Spencer‚ Alexander (2012), lessons learnt; Terrorism and the Media, Published by Arts and Humanities Research Council. P.4 state-behavior-in-cyberspace/ Available at: www.ukri.org/councils/ahrc/
Stein, Laura (2004), "Understanding Speech Rights: Defensive and Empowering Approaches to the First Amendment", Media, Culture & Society, Volume 26, Issue 1. pp 102-120.
Tambini, Damian (2021), "A theory of media freedom", Journal of Media Law,Volume 13, 2021 - Issue 2. pp 135-152.
Terrorist attacks in Paris: together for a democratic response. Resolution 2031 (2015)
Tufekci, Zeynep (2018), "How Social Media Took Us from Tahrir Square to Donald Trump". Available at: www.technologyreview.com/2018/08/14/240325/
U.S.Department of State, (2019). See: www.state.gov/joint-statement-on-advancingresponsible-
United Nations (2016), "General Assembly- A/HRC/32/L.20". Available at: www.undocs.org/Home/Mobile?FinalSymbol=A%2FHRC%2F32%2FL.20&Language=E&DeviceType=Desktop&LangRequested=False
United Nations General Assembly Resolutions (1947), "A/RES/110, Measures to be taken against propaganda and the inciters of a new war", adopted by the General Assembly during its 2nd session at the 108th plenary meeting, Available at: www.un-documents.net/a2r110.htm
United Nations General Assembly Resolutions (1948), "A/RES/127, False or distorted reports", adopted by the General Assembly during its 2nd session at the 115th plenary meeting, Available at: https: //digitallibrary.un.org/record/209899?ln=en
United Nations General Assembly Resolutions (1951),"A/RES/427(V)، Measures for the peaceful solution of the problem of prisoners of war", adopted by the General Assembly during its 5th session at the 325th plenary meeting, Available at: https: //digitallibrary.un.org/record/210563?ln=en
Wade J. Newhouse, Jr (1966), "The Constitution and International Agreements or Unilateral Action Curbing Peace-Imperiling Propaganda", International Control of Propaganda, Vol. 31, No. 3, (Summer), pp 506-526.
Whitton, John B and Larson, Arthur (1963), Propaganda, Publisher: Oceana; 1St Edition (January 1)
Pearson (2004), "Non-governmental Organizations and International Law: Mapping New Mechanisms for Governance". Australian Yearbook of International Law 23(1): 73-103.